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Just enter your email and we'll take care of the rest: Please enter a valid email address Please select a newsletter Subscribe. Firaxis delays Marvel's Midnight Suns, maybe until The game was previously scheduled to launch this October. Fingas , Dent , This ensures that public and private chunk names can never conflict with each other although two private chunk names could conflict.

The third letter must be uppercase to conform to the PNG specification. It is reserved for future expansion. Decoders should treat a chunk with a lower case third letter the same as any other unrecognised chunk.

The case of the fourth letter indicates whether the chunk is safe to copy by editors that do not recognize it. If lowercase, the chunk may be safely copied regardless of the extent of modifications to the file. If uppercase, it may only be copied if the modifications have not touched any critical chunks. As stated in the World Wide Web Consortium , bit depth is defined as "the number of bits per sample or per palette index not per pixel ". The PLTE chunk is essential for color type 3 indexed color.

It is optional for color types 2 and 6 truecolor and truecolor with alpha and it must not appear for color types 0 and 4 grayscale and grayscale with alpha. Other image attributes that can be stored in PNG files include gamma values, background color, and textual metadata information. The lowercase first letter in these chunks indicates that they are not needed for the PNG specification.

The lowercase last letter in some chunks indicates that they are safe to copy, even if the application concerned does not understand them. Pixels in PNG images are numbers that may be either indices of sample data in the palette or the sample data itself.

The palette is a separate table contained in the PLTE chunk. Sample data for a single pixel consists of a tuple of between one and four numbers. Whether the pixel data represents palette indices or explicit sample values, the numbers are referred to as channels and every number in the image is encoded with an identical format.

The permitted formats encode each number as an unsigned integer value using a fixed number of bits, referred to in the PNG specification as the bit depth. Notice that this is not the same as color depth , which is commonly used to refer to the total number of bits in each pixel, not each channel. The permitted bit depths are summarized in the table along with the total number of bits used for each pixel.

The number of channels depends on whether the image is grayscale or color and whether it has an alpha channel. PNG allows the following combinations of channels, called the color type. The color type is specified as an 8-bit value however only the low 3 bits are used and, even then, only the five combinations listed above are permitted. So long as the color type is valid it can be considered as a bit field as summarized in the adjacent table:. With indexed color images, the palette always stores trichromatic colors at a depth of 8 bits per channel 24 bits per palette entry.

Additionally, an optional list of 8-bit alpha values for the palette entries may be included; if not included, or if shorter than the palette, the remaining palette entries are assumed to be opaque. The palette must not have more entries than the image bit depth allows for, but it may have fewer for example, if an image with 8-bit pixels only uses 90 colors then it does not need palette entries for all colors. The palette must contain entries for all the pixel values present in the image. The standard allows indexed color PNGs to have 1, 2, 4 or 8 bits per pixel; grayscale images with no alpha channel may have 1, 2, 4, 8 or 16 bits per pixel.

Everything else uses a bit depth per channel of either 8 or The combinations this allows are given in the table above. The standard requires that decoders can read all supported color formats, but many image editors can only produce a small subset of them.

PNG offers a variety of transparency options. With true-color and grayscale images either a single pixel value can be declared as transparent or an alpha channel can be added enabling any percentage of partial transparency to be used.

For paletted images, alpha values can be added to palette entries. The number of such values stored may be less than the total number of palette entries, in which case the remaining entries are considered fully opaque. The scanning of pixel values for binary transparency is supposed to be performed before any color reduction to avoid pixels becoming unintentionally transparent.

This is most likely to pose an issue for systems that can decode bits-per-channel images as is required for compliance with the specification but only output at 8 bits per channel the norm for all but the highest end systems. Alpha storage can be "associated" " premultiplied " or "unassociated", but PNG standardized [29] on "unassociated" "non-premultiplied" alpha, which means that imagery is not alpha encoded ; the emissions represented in RGB are not the emissions at the pixel level.

This means that the over operation will multiply the RGB emissions by the alpha, and cannot represent emission and occlusion properly. Compared to formats with lossy compression such as JPEG, choosing a compression setting higher than average delays processing, but often does not result in a significantly smaller file size. Before DEFLATE is applied, the data is transformed via a prediction method: a single filter method is used for the entire image, while for each image line, a filter type is chosen to transform the data to make it more efficiently compressible.

There is only one filter method in the current PNG specification denoted method 0 , and thus in practice the only choice is which filter type to apply to each line. For this method, the filter predicts the value of each pixel based on the values of previous neighboring pixels, and subtracts the predicted color of the pixel from the actual value, as in DPCM.

An image line filtered in this way is often more compressible than the raw image line would be, especially if it is similar to the line above, since the differences from prediction will generally be clustered around 0, rather than spread over all possible image values.

These can be useful for creating complicated conditional statements and processing Boolean logic. Superscalar computers may contain multiple ALUs, allowing them to process several instructions simultaneously. A computer's memory can be viewed as a list of cells into which numbers can be placed or read. Each cell has a numbered "address" and can store a single number. The computer can be instructed to "put the number into the cell numbered " or to "add the number that is in cell to the number that is in cell and put the answer into cell Letters, numbers, even computer instructions can be placed into memory with equal ease.

Since the CPU does not differentiate between different types of information, it is the software's responsibility to give significance to what the memory sees as nothing but a series of numbers. In almost all modern computers, each memory cell is set up to store binary numbers in groups of eight bits called a byte.

To store larger numbers, several consecutive bytes may be used typically, two, four or eight. When negative numbers are required, they are usually stored in two's complement notation. Other arrangements are possible, but are usually not seen outside of specialized applications or historical contexts.

A computer can store any kind of information in memory if it can be represented numerically. Modern computers have billions or even trillions of bytes of memory. The CPU contains a special set of memory cells called registers that can be read and written to much more rapidly than the main memory area. There are typically between two and one hundred registers depending on the type of CPU. Registers are used for the most frequently needed data items to avoid having to access main memory every time data is needed.

As data is constantly being worked on, reducing the need to access main memory which is often slow compared to the ALU and control units greatly increases the computer's speed. ROM is typically used to store the computer's initial start-up instructions. In general, the contents of RAM are erased when the power to the computer is turned off, but ROM retains its data indefinitely. In embedded computers , which frequently do not have disk drives, all of the required software may be stored in ROM.

Software stored in ROM is often called firmware , because it is notionally more like hardware than software. Flash memory blurs the distinction between ROM and RAM, as it retains its data when turned off but is also rewritable. It is typically much slower than conventional ROM and RAM however, so its use is restricted to applications where high speed is unnecessary. In more sophisticated computers there may be one or more RAM cache memories , which are slower than registers but faster than main memory.

Generally computers with this sort of cache are designed to move frequently needed data into the cache automatically, often without the need for any intervention on the programmer's part. Hard disk drives , floppy disk drives and optical disc drives serve as both input and output devices. A graphics processing unit might contain fifty or more tiny computers that perform the calculations necessary to display 3D graphics. A era flat screen display contains its own computer circuitry.

While a computer may be viewed as running one gigantic program stored in its main memory, in some systems it is necessary to give the appearance of running several programs simultaneously.

This is achieved by multitasking i. By remembering where it was executing prior to the interrupt, the computer can return to that task later. If several programs are running "at the same time". Since modern computers typically execute instructions several orders of magnitude faster than human perception, it may appear that many programs are running at the same time even though only one is ever executing in any given instant.

This method of multitasking is sometimes termed "time-sharing" since each program is allocated a "slice" of time in turn. Before the era of inexpensive computers, the principal use for multitasking was to allow many people to share the same computer. If a program is waiting for the user to click on the mouse or press a key on the keyboard, then it will not take a "time slice" until the event it is waiting for has occurred. This frees up time for other programs to execute so that many programs may be run simultaneously without unacceptable speed loss.

Some computers are designed to distribute their work across several CPUs in a multiprocessing configuration, a technique once employed in only large and powerful machines such as supercomputers , mainframe computers and servers. Multiprocessor and multi-core multiple CPUs on a single integrated circuit personal and laptop computers are now widely available, and are being increasingly used in lower-end markets as a result. Supercomputers in particular often have highly unique architectures that differ significantly from the basic stored-program architecture and from general-purpose computers.

Such designs tend to be useful for only specialized tasks due to the large scale of program organization required to successfully utilize most of the available resources at once. Supercomputers usually see usage in large-scale simulation , graphics rendering , and cryptography applications, as well as with other so-called " embarrassingly parallel " tasks.

Software refers to parts of the computer which do not have a material form, such as programs, data, protocols, etc. Software is that part of a computer system that consists of encoded information or computer instructions, in contrast to the physical hardware from which the system is built. Computer software includes computer programs , libraries and related non-executable data , such as online documentation or digital media.

It is often divided into system software and application software Computer hardware and software require each other and neither can be realistically used on its own. There are thousands of different programming languages—some intended for general purpose, others useful for only highly specialized applications. The defining feature of modern computers which distinguishes them from all other machines is that they can be programmed.

That is to say that some type of instructions the program can be given to the computer, and it will process them. Modern computers based on the von Neumann architecture often have machine code in the form of an imperative programming language. In practical terms, a computer program may be just a few instructions or extend to many millions of instructions, as do the programs for word processors and web browsers for example.

A typical modern computer can execute billions of instructions per second gigaflops and rarely makes a mistake over many years of operation. Large computer programs consisting of several million instructions may take teams of programmers years to write, and due to the complexity of the task almost certainly contain errors.

This section applies to most common RAM machine —based computers. In most cases, computer instructions are simple: add one number to another, move some data from one location to another, send a message to some external device, etc. These instructions are read from the computer's memory and are generally carried out executed in the order they were given.

However, there are usually specialized instructions to tell the computer to jump ahead or backwards to some other place in the program and to carry on executing from there.

These are called "jump" instructions or branches. Furthermore, jump instructions may be made to happen conditionally so that different sequences of instructions may be used depending on the result of some previous calculation or some external event. Many computers directly support subroutines by providing a type of jump that "remembers" the location it jumped from and another instruction to return to the instruction following that jump instruction.

Program execution might be likened to reading a book. While a person will normally read each word and line in sequence, they may at times jump back to an earlier place in the text or skip sections that are not of interest. Similarly, a computer may sometimes go back and repeat the instructions in some section of the program over and over again until some internal condition is met.

This is called the flow of control within the program and it is what allows the computer to perform tasks repeatedly without human intervention.

Comparatively, a person using a pocket calculator can perform a basic arithmetic operation such as adding two numbers with just a few button presses. But to add together all of the numbers from 1 to 1, would take thousands of button presses and a lot of time, with a near certainty of making a mistake. On the other hand, a computer may be programmed to do this with just a few simple instructions.

The following example is written in the MIPS assembly language :. Once told to run this program, the computer will perform the repetitive addition task without further human intervention.

It will almost never make a mistake and a modern PC can complete the task in a fraction of a second. In most computers, individual instructions are stored as machine code with each instruction being given a unique number its operation code or opcode for short. The command to add two numbers together would have one opcode; the command to multiply them would have a different opcode, and so on.

The simplest computers are able to perform any of a handful of different instructions; the more complex computers have several hundred to choose from, each with a unique numerical code. Since the computer's memory is able to store numbers, it can also store the instruction codes. This leads to the important fact that entire programs which are just lists of these instructions can be represented as lists of numbers and can themselves be manipulated inside the computer in the same way as numeric data.

The fundamental concept of storing programs in the computer's memory alongside the data they operate on is the crux of the von Neumann, or stored program, architecture. This is called the Harvard architecture after the Harvard Mark I computer. Modern von Neumann computers display some traits of the Harvard architecture in their designs, such as in CPU caches.

While it is possible to write computer programs as long lists of numbers machine language and while this technique was used with many early computers, [h] it is extremely tedious and potentially error-prone to do so in practice, especially for complicated programs.

These mnemonics are collectively known as a computer's assembly language. Converting programs written in assembly language into something the computer can actually understand machine language is usually done by a computer program called an assembler. Programming languages provide various ways of specifying programs for computers to run.

Unlike natural languages , programming languages are designed to permit no ambiguity and to be concise. They are purely written languages and are often difficult to read aloud. They are generally either translated into machine code by a compiler or an assembler before being run, or translated directly at run time by an interpreter. Sometimes programs are executed by a hybrid method of the two techniques. Machine languages and the assembly languages that represent them collectively termed low-level programming languages are generally unique to the particular architecture of a computer's central processing unit CPU.

Although considerably easier than in machine language, writing long programs in assembly language is often difficult and is also error prone. Therefore, most practical programs are written in more abstract high-level programming languages that are able to express the needs of the programmer more conveniently and thereby help reduce programmer error. High level languages are usually "compiled" into machine language or sometimes into assembly language and then into machine language using another computer program called a compiler.

It is therefore often possible to use different compilers to translate the same high level language program into the machine language of many different types of computer. This is part of the means by which software like video games may be made available for different computer architectures such as personal computers and various video game consoles. Program design of small programs is relatively simple and involves the analysis of the problem, collection of inputs, using the programming constructs within languages, devising or using established procedures and algorithms, providing data for output devices and solutions to the problem as applicable.

As problems become larger and more complex, features such as subprograms, modules, formal documentation, and new paradigms such as object-oriented programming are encountered. Large programs involving thousands of line of code and more require formal software methodologies. The task of developing large software systems presents a significant intellectual challenge. Producing software with an acceptably high reliability within a predictable schedule and budget has historically been difficult; the academic and professional discipline of software engineering concentrates specifically on this challenge.

Errors in computer programs are called " bugs ". They may be benign and not affect the usefulness of the program, or have only subtle effects. But in some cases, they may cause the program or the entire system to " hang ", becoming unresponsive to input such as mouse clicks or keystrokes, to completely fail, or to crash. Bugs are usually not the fault of the computer. Since computers merely execute the instructions they are given, bugs are nearly always the result of programmer error or an oversight made in the program's design.

Computers have been used to coordinate information between multiple locations since the s. The U. In time, the network spread beyond academic and military institutions and became known as the Internet. The emergence of networking involved a redefinition of the nature and boundaries of the computer.

Computer operating systems and applications were modified to include the ability to define and access the resources of other computers on the network, such as peripheral devices, stored information, and the like, as extensions of the resources of an individual computer. Initially these facilities were available primarily to people working in high-tech environments, but in the s the spread of applications like e-mail and the World Wide Web , combined with the development of cheap, fast networking technologies like Ethernet and ADSL saw computer networking become almost ubiquitous.

In fact, the number of computers that are networked is growing phenomenally. A very large proportion of personal computers regularly connect to the Internet to communicate and receive information. A computer does not need to be electronic , nor even have a processor , nor RAM , nor even a hard disk. While popular usage of the word "computer" is synonymous with a personal electronic computer, [l] the modern definition of a computer is literally: " A device that computes , especially a programmable [usually] electronic machine that performs high-speed mathematical or logical operations or that assembles, stores, correlates, or otherwise processes information.

There is active research to make computers out of many promising new types of technology, such as optical computers , DNA computers , neural computers , and quantum computers. Most computers are universal, and are able to calculate any computable function , and are limited only by their memory capacity and operating speed.

However different designs of computers can give very different performance for particular problems; for example quantum computers can potentially break some modern encryption algorithms by quantum factoring very quickly.

There are many types of computer architectures :. Of all these abstract machines , a quantum computer holds the most promise for revolutionizing computing. The ability to store and execute lists of instructions called programs makes computers extremely versatile, distinguishing them from calculators. The Church—Turing thesis is a mathematical statement of this versatility: any computer with a minimum capability being Turing-complete is, in principle, capable of performing the same tasks that any other computer can perform.

Therefore, any type of computer netbook , supercomputer , cellular automaton , etc. A computer will solve problems in exactly the way it is programmed to, without regard to efficiency, alternative solutions, possible shortcuts, or possible errors in the code. Computer programs that learn and adapt are part of the emerging field of artificial intelligence and machine learning. Artificial intelligence based products generally fall into two major categories: rule-based systems and pattern recognition systems.

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